1 Definition of Sociology
First conceived of as Social Physics and used by Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French,
Sociology is a term used to denote the scientific study of people in-group
relationships (or sometimes referred to as the science of society). It is the
scientific study of social behaviour. Sociology focuses on patterned and recurrent
relationships between and among people as well as on the social factors
that have influence on the patterned relationships.
Thus three key issues feature strongly in the
definition of sociology as a subject matter: a science; patterned and recurrent
relationships; and social factors
shaping the relationships
1.1 Sociology
as a science
Simply stated, science is
"definite knowledge acquired through empirical methods". The
knowledge is in the form of scientific laws, principles, theories, etc. The
word science comes from the Latin word "scientia" which means
knowledge. As such science literally means a body of knowledge". This
knowledge helps us to understand and explain some aspects of the world around
us.
A
theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions
that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. Simply
stated it is an implicit assumption about things.
Scientific laws are
empirical generalizations that have been repeatedly verified and are widely
accepted. On the other hand, empirical generalizations are
generalizations or hypothesis inductively derived from observations.
Hypothesis is an expected
but unconfirmed relationship among two or more variables. It is an expectation
about the nature of things derived from theory. It is a statement of something
that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct. It is a
conjectural statement, a tentative proposition about the relation between two
or more phenomena or variables.
While scientific reasoning
is the key in the evaluation of the logical structure of science, methods of
inquiry are critical in evaluating the evidence of scientific knowledge. For
this class, we shall limit our discussion to methods of inquiry as a critical
consideration in evaluating evidence of scientific knowledge and therefore see
science more as a process than as a product.
Science can be perceived as a
process, meaning a series of operations or actions that bring about an end
result. As a process science is in many respects similar to industrial
manufacturing process. It is, however, different in the following respects:
(i)
science produces knowledge while industry produces finished products/goods
(ii)
the scientific process is cyclical while the industrial process follows a
linear progression from raw materials to completed goods: the cyclical nature
of the scientific process consist of "starting with facts and ending with
facts".
Thus, at some point scientists
are observers recording predictions on the basis of their theories, which they
check against their observations (i.e. the facts) again.
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Source: R.A. Singleton, B.C. Straits, and M.M.
Straits, 1999: Approaches to Social Research, p. 28.
Where to begin in this chain is
arbitrary. But at some point, theories generate predictions or hypothesis,
hypotheses are checked against observations, which in turn produce
generalizations, and the generalizations support, contradict, or suggest
modifications in the theory. It is important to remember that science is a
process involving the continuous interaction of theory and research
Note: the horizontal line in the
diagram dissecting empirical generalizations and predictions separates the
world of theory from the world of research. The development of theory is, as we
have seen, the goal of science. Research supports this goal through systematic
observation that generates the facts from which theories are inferred and
tested.
Classification
of Sciences
Sciences are of two kinds: (i) Physical sciences and
(ii) Social sciences
Physical sciences deal mostly with the natural
phenomena
The term Social Science is often loosely applied to any
kind of study, which is concerned with man and society. Strictly
speaking “By Social Science we mean those bodies of knowledge compiled through
the use of scientific method which deal with the forms and contents of man’s
interaction”. Examples: History, Political Science, Economics, Sociology,
Anthropology, Psychology etc.
The physicist, the chemist, the
biologist study the universe, in which we live and the elements of which it is
composed, in an attempt to understand our physical environment. Similarly, the
social scientist studies the environment in which we live in, and attempts to
understand human society and to predict how people will interact in a given set
of circumstances.
Sociology is one of the members
of the family of Social Sciences. The boundaries between the social sciences
are very vague and constantly shifting. Each one of these sciences has
different historical origins and each science is trying to preserve its
distinctiveness. In spite of the specialization found among the social
sciences, they are interrelated and interdependent. Social scientists are aware
that their sciences overlap. This awareness has been responsible for the
development of what is known as an “interdisciplinary
approach”. This approach stresses the idea that
each science is related to, and sometimes dependent on the other.
Economics studies the
production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Wealth
constitutes the central problem of economics. The economy is part of society;
goods and services do not produce, distribute and consume themselves. The
economic processes depend upon society. The social aspects of economic are the
subject matter of “sociology of economics”, one of the major branches of
sociology.
Political science is the
science of state and government. Political science has close links with
sociology. It has been strongly influenced by one of the branches of sociology,
known as “political sociology”. Political sociology analyses political
behaviour and studies the social interaction involved in the process of
government.
Anthropology is a science
of man and his works. Sociology and anthropology are “twin sisters”. Both are
mutually helpful and supportive. Anthropology has two main branches: Physical anthropology and
cultural anthropology.
Physical anthropology deals with human evolution and studies the physical
characteristics of man. Cultural anthropology deals with the cultural
evolution. It studies the ways of life of different communities, particularly,
the primitives. Anthropology differs from sociology in that it usually focuses
on the simple, small-scale, primitive societies. Anthropology studies the
society as ‘whole”. Sociology concentrates more on group processes within
larger modern complex societies.
Psychology is the science
of human behaviour. This science, more than any other social science, focuses
on the individual. Psychology shares one major field of interest with
sociology, namely social psychology. Social psychology is the science of
the behaviour of the individual in society. It studies the way in which
personality and behaviour are influenced by the social context.
The
scientific method
In order to for one’s knowledge
to be accepted by the scientific community as being scientific, one has to
generate knowledge by using what is commonly referred to as the scientific
method. The scientific method involves well-established principles and
procedures that make it possible to obtain accurate knowledge. Sociology is a
science because it uses well -established principles and procedures identified
under the general term of scientific method to obtain accurate knowledge.
Key
steps in the scientific method
The scientific method involves
the application of several distinct steps to any specific problem. The distinct
steps include: identifying a problem; formulating hypotheses; developing a
research design; collecting data; analyzing data; and stating conclusions
(Shepard, 1981:33)
Identifying a problem: This is a researchable rather than a
personal problem. A researchable problem is the kind of problem whose
resolution calls for data collection so it can be answered through providing
knowledge that helps in describing, explanation, understanding and predicting
aspects relevant to the problem. A researchable problem raises the need for one
to interpret data in order to give answers to the problem. Our day-to-day
experiences and literature are the basic sources of researchable problems.
Formulating hypotheses: Hypotheses are tentative, testable
statements of relationships between variables. The statements give the proposed
explanation for the observed phenomenon that is forms the basis for data to be
used in supporting or refuting the hypothesis.
Developing a research design: A research design defines the
procedures for collecting and analyzing data. It specifies the specific methods
for collecting data. There are 3 basic ways of collecting data in sociology:
asking questions, observing behaviour, and analyzing existing materials and
records.
Collecting data: Using any of the above-mentioned methods, one
undertakes the actual process of collecting data.
Analyzing data: This involves seeing if the data supports or
negates the hypotheses through the process of data interpretation. Since the
same data can be interpreted differently, personal bias should be avoided so
that the interpretation is meaningful and scientific (Note: How one can use statistics to lie)
Stating conclusions: At this phase the researcher gives a final
conclusion that relates to the hypotheses stated. Hypotheses are at this time
supported, rejected, or modified. This is the knowledge, which is thus regarded
as science.
1.2 Sociology Focuses on Relationships
Sociologists are interested in patterned human relationships rather
than individual behaviour. Students in class do not all behave exactly alike:
some sleep, some daydream, some prepare for an exam in another course, some
talk to friends, some listen to the professor, some take lecture notes, some
write letters home etc
Yet if you visited almost any
college classroom, you would find similar patterns of behaviour: students
remain in their seats while professors lecture, professors assign grades,
students take examinations, students ask questions etc. Although individual
students and professors differ from class to class, they relate to one another
in patterned ways. This patterned relationship is the subject matter of
sociology
1.3 Sociology Focuses on Social Factors
Most westerners tend to explain
human behaviour in individualistic terms: a young man goes to war to kill an
enemy, a young mother divorces her husband to develop her potential, a recently
retired man commits suicide to escape depression. But these same events can
also be explained without relying on individualistic factors: many young men go
to war because they have been taught to be patriotic, some young mothers
divorce because of social trend toward sexual equality, and some retired men
commit suicide because society has suddenly separated them from work. These
latter explanations are referred to as sociological
explanations as they do not refer to individuals. Sociologists do not speak of a young man, a
young woman, or a retired man. They focus on groups or categories of people:
young men, young women, retired men.
The sociological approach assumes
that the behaviour of a group is not determined by the characteristic of its
individual members. Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917), a pioneering nineteenth
century French sociologist, developed the approach that assumes that the
behavior of a group is not determined by the characteristic of its individual
members but the social factors. Thus, Durkheim argued for example that we do
not attempt to explain the nature of bronze from its component parts of lead,
copper and tin. Instead, we consider bronze an alloy, a unique metal
produced by the synthesis of several distinct metals. The hardness of bronze is not predictable from its components, each of
which is soft and malleable. Durkheim reasoned that if a combination of certain
metals produces a unique metal, some similar process might happen in groups of
people
Following the metal alloy
analogy, Durkheim argued that people's behaviour within a group cannot be
predicted from the characteristics of individual group members. Something new
is created when individuals come together as a collective. Individualistic
explanations of group behaviour are inadequate because all human activities are
influenced by social forces that individuals can neither create nor control.
We live in groups ranging in size
from a family to an entire society, but they all encourage conformity. Thus,
people who belong to similar groups tend to think, feel, and behave in similar
ways. Thus American, Russian, and Chinese citizens have distinctive
eating habits, types of dress, religious beliefs, and attitudes toward family
life
Conformity within a
group occurs partly because most of its members believe that their group's ways
of thinking, feeling, and behaving are the best; they have been successfully
taught to value their group's ways. Group members also tend to conform even
when their personal preferences are not the same as their groups’. Whether because of members value their
group's ways or because they yield to social pressures of the moment, behaviour
within a group is not usually predicted from knowledge about its individual
members. The sum of a group is not equal to its parts.
1.4 Social Forces in the
Emergence and Development of Sociology
All intellectual fields are
profoundly shaped by their social settings. That social settings have a great
influence on any intellectual field is more so in sociology because sociology
is derived from social settings and takes the social setting as its subject
matter. The following social conditions and/or intellectual forces are said to
be very instrumental for the emergence of sociology: political revolutions, the
industrial revolution and rise of capitalism, the rise of socialism,
urbanization, religious change, enlightenment, and the growth of science. The
conditions at the time led to loss of the hitherto social order and caused
intellectuals of that time to focus more closely on the social order and social
changes around them. This signaled the beginnings of sociology, a field of study distinguishable from
philosophy, the natural sciences, and other social sciences such as
economics, psychology, and anthropology.
Political
revolutions: The long series of
political revolutions led by the French Revolution of 1789 and carried over
through the nineteen century was the most immediate factor in development of
sociology. It is the negative consequences of the revolutions that attracted
intellectuals rather than the positive consequences. The strongest negative
consequence of the revolution was the resultant chaos and disorder, which
attracted intellectuals who aimed at understanding the phenomenon and get ways
of restoring order. While some intellectuals wanted to merely restore order,
others recognized that it was a social change phenomenon and accordingly
recognized that the situation was irreversible and that they should find new
bases of social order. In general, the issue of social order was one of the
major concerns of classical sociological theorists such as Auguste Comte and
Emile Durkeim.
The
industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism: The industrial
Revolution, which swept many Western societies in the 19th Century
and early 20th Century, was not a single event but many related
developments that culminated in the transformation of the Western world from a
largely agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system. Large numbers of
people left farms and agricultural work for the industrial occupations offered
in the burgeoning factors. The factories themselves were transformed by a long
series of technological improvements. Within the established system, a few
profited greatly while the majority worked long hours for low wages. A reaction
against the system led to enormous upheaval in Western societies and thus
attracted sociologists, especially the four major figures, to examine the
social change. These included Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Georg
Simmel. These spent time studying problems brought about by capitalism and ways
of solving them.
The
rise of socialism
One set of changes aimed at coping with the
excesses of the industrial system and capitalism is socialism. Socialism was a
reaction against inadequacies in society brought about by capitalism. Although
some sociologists favored socialism as a solution to industrial problems, most
were personally and intellectually opposed to it. On one side, Karl Marx was an
active supporter of the overthrow of the capitalist system and its replacement
by a socialist system. However, Marx was atypical of in the early years of
sociological theory. Most of the early theorists, such as Weber and Durkheim,
were opposed to socialism at least as espoused by Marx. Although they
recognized the problems within capitalist society, they sought social reform
with capitalism rather than the social revolution argued for by Marx. They
feared socialism more than capitalism. In fact, sociological theory developed
in reaction against Marxian and, more generally, socialist theory.
Urbanization: Partly as a result of industrialization, many people
in the ninetieth and twentieth centuries were uprooted from their rural homes
and moved to urban setting (cities). This massive migration was caused, in
part, by the jobs created by the industrial system in the urban areas. But it
presented many difficulties for those people who had to adjust to urban life.
Also, the expansion of cities produced a seemingly endless list of urban
problems including overcrowding, pollution, noise, and traffic jams. The nature
of such problems were therefore of interest to many sociologists such as Max
Weber and Georg Simmel who wanted to explain how the problems could be solved.
Religious change: Social change brought on by political
revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, and urbanization had a profound effect
on religiosity. Many early sociologists came from religious backgrounds and
were actively, and in some cases professionally involved in religion. They
brought to sociology the same objectives as they had in their religious lives.
Hey wished to improve people’s lives. For some (such as Comte), sociology was
transformed into a religion. For others, their sociological theories bore an
unmistakable religious imprint. Durkheim wrote one of his major works on
religion. A large portion of Weber’s work also was devoted to the religions of
the world. Marx, too, had an interest in religiosity, but his orientation was
far more critical.
The Growth of Science (Positivism):
As sociological theory was
being developed, there was an increasing emphasis on science, not only in
colleges and universities but in society as a whole. The technological
products of science were permeating every sector of life, and science was
acquiring enormous prestige. Science became increasingly accepted as part of
life. The sciences (physics, biology, chemistry) were accorded honoured places
in society. This naturally influenced sociologists who found it imperative to
study human behavior scientifically. Many sociologists at the time wanted to
model sociology after the successful physical and biological sciences. However,
a debate soon developed between those who wholeheartedly accepted the
scientific model and those (such as Weber who thought that distinctive
characteristics of social life made a wholesale adoption of a scientific model
difficult and unwise. This remains a debatable issue to date.
Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
and its Influence on Sociology:
Enlightenment was a period of
remarkable intellectual development and change in philosophical thought. A
number of long-standing ideas and beliefs- many of which related to social
life- were overthrown and replaced during the enlightenment. Overall, the
enlightenment was characterized by the belief that people could comprehend and
control the universe by means of reason and empirical research. The view was
that because the physical world was dominated by natural laws, it was likely
that the social world was too. Thus it was up to the philosopher, using reason
and research, to discover these social laws. The argument went, once understood
how the social world worked, the Enlightenment thinkers had a practical goal –
the creation of a “better”, more rational world.
Within an emphasis on reason, the
Enlightenment philosophers were inclined to reject beliefs in traditional
authority. When these thinkers examined traditional values and institutions,
they often found them to be irrational – that is, contrary to human nature and
inhibitive of human growth and development. The mission of the practical and
change-oriented philosophers of the Enlightenment was to overcome these
irrational systems.
1.5 Major Fields of Sociology
Rural sociology
Rural
sociology is a sub-field of sociology devoted to issues/problems related to
rural people and life. It is a scientific study of rural people in group
relationships.
Sociology
of the family
The Sociology of the family examines the
family, as an institution and a unit of socialization, through various
sociological perspectives, particularly with regard to the relationship between
the nuclear family and industrial capitalism, and the distinct gender roles and
concepts of childhood which arose with it. The sociology of the family is a
common component on introductory and pre-university academic curricula, as it
is perhaps the simplest institution to which one may apply many fundamental
sociological approaches.
Criminology
Criminology (from Latin crīmen,
"accusation"; and Greek -λογία, logia)
is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal
behavior in both the individual and in society. Criminology is an
interdisciplinary field in the behavioral sciences, drawing especially upon the
research of sociologists (particularly in the sociology of deviance), social
anthropologists and psychologists, as well as on writings in law.
Areas
of research in criminology include the incidence, forms, causes and
consequences of crime, as well as social and governmental regulations and
reaction to crime. For studying the distribution and causes of crime,
criminology mainly relies upon quantitative methods. The term criminology
was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia.
Around the same time, but later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the
analogous French term criminologie.
Political sociology
Political sociology is the study of the relations between state and
society. The discipline draws on comparative history to analyze socio-political
trends. A typical research question in this area might be: "Why do so few
American citizens choose to vote?"
Political sociology looks at how major social trends can affect the
political process, as well as exploring how various social forces work together
to change political policies.
Medical sociology
Medical sociology involves the sociological analysis of medical
organizations and institutions; the production of knowledge and selection of
methods, the actions and interactions of
healthcare professionals, and the social or cultural (rather than clinical or
bodily) effects of medical practice. The field commonly interacts with the sociology
of knowledge, science and technology studies, and social epistemology.
Medical sociologists are also interested in the qualitative experiences of
patients, often working at the boundaries of public health, social work,
demography and gerontology to explore phenomena at the intersection of the
social and clinical sciences. Health disparities commonly relate to typical
categories such as class and race. Objective sociological research findings
quickly become a normative and political issue.
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